Introduction

Purpose of NY-CHPS

The purpose of NY-CHPS is to provide a framework that helps school districts and their design teams design and build sustainable school buildings that enhance the educational environment and facilitate learning.  High performance schools optimize resources over the life of the facility, are less expensive to operate than standard buildings, and help to ensure healthy, safe, and high quality learning environments for all occupants.

NY-CHPS was developed as part of a collaborative effort between the New York State Education Department and the New York State Energy Research and Development Authority.  An Advisory Council was created to inform and guide the process consisting of members of the following groups: Superintendents of Buildings and Grounds Association, Association of Educational Safety and Health Professionals, Association of School Business Officials, Council of School Superintendents, New York State Department of Health, a Teacher, the Healthy Schools Network, ASHRAE, Association of Energy Engineers, and the American Institute of Architects.  NY-CHPS is built from a Massachusetts version of the guidelines of the Collaborative for High Performance Schools, Inc. (CHPS).  CHPS was originally developed as part of a collaborative effort in California.  New York is grateful for all those involved in the California and Massachusetts development processes.  In recognition of the development process, New York has named these guidelines, NY-CHPS.

Provide an Outstanding Learning Environment

First and foremost, schools designed to meet NY-CHPS must improve the learning environment.  Mostly this is accomplished by ensuring that classrooms are comfortable and do not have visual (e.g., glare), audio (e.g., background noise), thermal or other indoor environmental quality (IEQ) conditions (e.g., poor air quality) that could inhibit learning.

School Facilities Must Be Durable

NY-CHPS helps designers and school districts understand the true life-cycle cost of a school, focusing not just on construction costs, but also on energy, maintenance, and replacement costs. School construction bonds are typically paid over periods up to 30 years.  New school buildings must include technologies and building materials that outlast the bonds that pay for them.  NY-CHPS helps designers and school officials select flooring, roofing, wall, and other building systems based on total, life-cycle cost of ownership.

School Facilities Must Be Easy to Maintain

Schools must be properly maintained to be energy efficient and healthy.  Maintenance expenses must be considered during design because they represent a significant expense to school districts and taxpayers.  High performance schools recognize the vital role of durable products and ease of maintenance in keeping buildings healthy and safe.  Healthy and safe buildings can contribute to lower absenteeism rates and more productive occupants.

Buildings Should Be Designed to Utilize and Preserve Natural Resources

Schools buildings should be designed with special attention to building orientation on the site to capture natural lighting, passive solar heating during the winter months, and natural cooling effects during the warm months.  Designers must pay special attention to room location (to benefit from daylight), window sizing and placements, and glazing selection.  Sites should also be selected to preserve natural resources and to minimize adverse impacts on the environment.

Renovation Projects Are an Opportunity for High Performance Design

The average school building in New York is over 50 years old as of 2005.  Many will undergo significant renovation in the coming years.  The renovation of school buildings provides school districts with an opportunity to increase energy efficiency and indoor environmental quality while maintaining and promoting building durability.  Healthy and environmentally-friendly schools can contribute substantially to achievement of educational goals.  High performance renovation can help New York’s older school buildings to continue to cost-effectively serve school districts for many years to come.

Provide Long-Term Benefits to Students, Teachers and Taxpayers

High performance schools provide direct and indirect benefits to teachers and students by improving the educational environment through spaces that are well lit, have good acoustics and indoor air quality, and are designed to optimize learning.  School districts that build high performance schools derive savings through reduced energy, maintenance, and replacement costs.  High performance schools take steps to be the next generation of schools that provide lasting benefits to the community.

General Notes 

NY-CHPS is an Appendix to the NYSED Manual of Planning Standards (MPS).  All school construction projects that fall under the auspices of NYSED and that require a building permit must meet all local (where applicable), state and federal codes, as well as all requirements in the MPS, including the New York Uniform Fire Prevention and Building Code and the New York State Energy Conservation Construction Code.  To maintain consistency among the various NYSED documents, various sections of NY-CHPS reference specific New York State Codes, regulations of the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, and federal requirements.  In addition, some sections that address building operations include a requirement that “the school district must develop a formal policy to …”  These kinds of requirements are intended to involve the school district superintendent and the school board to formalize policies that will benefit the school for years to come.

What is a High Performance School?

A high performance school has three distinct attributes: it is designed to create a healthy and comfortable learning and working environment; it is less costly to operate than a conventional school over the life of the building; and it is constructed to conserve important resources such as energy and water.

A high performance school is designed with durable materials and uses high-efficiency, “correctly-sized” heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) equipment and lighting systems.  Appropriate amounts of glare-free daylight are brought into the school to enhance the learning environment and reduce lighting costs.  The building shell integrates the most effective combination of insulation, glazing, and thermal mass to ensure energy efficiency.  Plumbing fixtures are specified to reduce water consumption.  Together, these measures significantly reduce the operational costs of running the school building.  Based on recent research completed around the country, 20% - 40% cost savings in utility bills are common versus a non-high-performance building of the same size and shape.

A high performance school is also thermally, visually, and acoustically comfortable.  Thermal comfort means that teachers, students and administrators are neither hot nor cold as they go about their daily activities.  Visual comfort means that the quality of lighting makes visual tasks, such as reading and following classroom presentations, easier.  Acoustic comfort is achieved when students and teachers can easily hear and comprehend each other, and are not impeded by loud ventilation systems or noise from adjoining spaces or the outdoors.

Indoor air quality is another important feature of a high performance school.  The significant amount of time students and teachers spend inside schools during their educational career, combined with children’s increased susceptibility to indoor pollutants, underscores the importance of good indoor air quality.  Indoor pollutants such as chemical toxins and biological agents can create significant health risks and adverse learning conditions.  In a high performance school, air intakes are located away from potential sources of contamination and ventilation systems are designed to optimize quantities of fresh air.  Architects and engineers also incorporate best design practices to prevent water intrusion into wall and roof assemblies.  This, in turn, reduces the potential for the accumulation of moisture in materials that could support mold growth or lead to premature replacement of indoor finishes and even structural elements.

Where possible, a high performance school is built on an environmentally responsible site.  To the extent possible, the school's site should conserve existing natural areas and incorporates them into the curriculum.  Stormwater runoff is minimized or captured on site for irrigation or flushing water closets.  The site should be accessible to bicycle and pedestrian traffic and be conveniently located for community activities.

While operational savings, environmental stewardship, and community-building are attractive benefits, it is important to emphasize that, above all, a high performance school must provide an environment that enhances the primary mission of the New York State Education Department: to raise the knowledge, skill, and opportunity of all the people of New York.

How Much More Will It Cost?

It is usually assumed that building high performance schools is more costly, but that is not always the case.  By using an integrated design process from the start, better buildings can usually be built at little — and sometimes no — additional construction cost.  Higher design costs may be incurred, but this is usually only a small fraction of overall project costs and many times incremental design costs can be offset by savings in other areas.  For example, if an architect proposes the possibility of saving energy by changing the windows from double glazing to triple glazing, this will save energy but will cost more money for the windows.  But then the engineers might find that they can eliminate the perimeter hot water radiation system because the perimeter heat loss is reduced, and heating can be done with just heat from the air system.  A designer might also determine that air duct sizes for heating and cooling can also be reduced, or the boiler may be downsized.  In the final analysis, the reductions in HVAC equipment could more than pay for the added cost for the triple glazing.  In the traditional, non-integrated process — in which designers primarily sit in their separate offices and use a standard, “worst case design” sheet method — such integrated savings and advantages are often not possible, and systems can be needlessly over designed and inefficient.

Most architectural and engineering firms involved in school design have already developed at least some expertise in sustainable design and high performance schools.  However, there are a number of new skills and processes involved in the design of a high performance school that deserve additional fees.  A commissioning authority and an energy analysis firm may need to be added to the design team at additional cost.  These are usually contracted directly by the owner.  The architect is usually in charge of the high performance design process and will have a number of additional tasks to perform in executing and documenting the process.  The engineers, who in the past were usually paid on a percentage of the cost of the equipment in their work, may have additional tasks related to high performance design and may be asked to reduce the size and cost of their equipment to more closely match the reduced building loads.  School districts are encouraged to openly discuss these potential costs with their design professionals at the interview stage.

Despite the efforts of skilled professionals using an integrated design process, a high performance school's first cost may be slightly more than that of a conventional design.  But the cost/benefit analysis of the project as a whole (as in past projects) will show substantial savings.  A report published in December, 2005, by the Massachusetts Technology Collaborative indicated that for 30 high performance schools nationwide and an analysis of available research, high performance schools cost 1.5% to 2.5% more than conventional schools, but the high performance schools provide financial benefits that are 10 to 20 times as large.  Savings can accrue from reduced energy use, reduced water and sewer use, reduced equipment maintenance and replacement costs (by using life-cycle cost analysis to select materials, for example), reduced site maintenance, reduced liability costs and even possibly reduced sick-time losses from student and teacher absences by eliminating out gassing of volatile organic compounds from the building materials.

Using NY-CHPS

NY-CHPS is provided by NYSED as a benchmark for high performance school buildings.

NY-CHPS is divided into seven sections: site; water; energy; materials; indoor environmental quality (IEQ); operations and maintenance; and extra credit.  Each section has prerequisites that must be achieved, with the remainder of NY-CHPS consisting of optional credits.  These prerequisites and credits allow the school district to show that their completed school meets the criteria for being a New York High Performance School.  To obtain this standing, a minimum of all prerequisites and 65 credits must be achieved.  The school district must maintain documentation proving that the prerequisites and claimed credits have been met so that the public can review the documentation.  Furthermore, for the credits that include Post-Construction documentation, that documentation must be gathered after the school is completed to demonstrate that the building is performing as predicted.  All documentation must be maintained where it can be accessed for a period of five years at the school district offices.

NYSED provides NY-CHPS to help designers produce better high performance schools, but the use of NY-CHPS is voluntary.  Following NY-CHPS is not required — as following NYSED’s Manual of Planning Standards is — in order to receive a construction permit from NYSED.

NY-CHPS Scoresheet

The following table can serve as a worksheet for totaling your points.

1       Site (15 points, 11%)

1.1     Site Selection

Purpose:  To choose sites that protect students and staff from outdoor pollution and minimally impact the environment, as well as to channel development to centrally located areas, with existing infrastructure, to protect greenfields, minimize transportation requirements, and preserve habitat and natural resources.

1.1.1      Prerequisite:  Code Compliance

Documentation

Provide a letter signed by the project architect and the school superintendent explaining how the site meets all requirements.

Resources

What is an Environmental Impact Statement? http://www.dec.state.ny.us/website/dcs/seqr/seqr_3.html

School Site Standards, Site Selection and Site Development, New York State Education Department

Regulations

State Environmental Quality Review Act

1.1.2      Prerequisite:  Joint Use of Facilities

The most successful schools have a high level of parent and community involvement.  This involvement can be enhanced if a school is designed so that neighborhood meetings, recreation activities, and other community functions can take place at the school in a safe and secure fashion.

Building or renovating a school provides an opportunity to incorporate community programs and services into the building program.  During the planning stages, school districts should give careful thought to the types of programs, services, and facilities they may wish to offer via the future school building (e.g., library services, recreation services, meeting space, space for special events, etc.).  As an example, if the community lacks a library, it could plan a library for shared school and community access.

Other strategies that contribute to shared use of the school building include designing separate entrances for spaces likely to be shared, adjusting building orientation and layout to separate classroom and administration areas from shared spaces during events, and designing special features into the school that the community can use, such as an elevated walking track that citizens can use.  One high performance school incorporated this type of walking track, as pictured above.

Documentation

A letter signed by project architect and school superintendent indicating features of the school that enhance its shared use with the community.

1.1.3      Prerequisite:  No Development Near Wetlands

Comply with Army Corps of Engineers requirements for federal wetlands.  Do not develop any portion of the site that lies within the 100 ft buffer for designated New York State wetlands.

Wetlands: specific wetland types subject to protection include, but are not limited to, swamps, marshes, bogs, salt marshes, lakes, ponds, rivers, riverfront areas, and land subject to flooding.

Documentation

State Pollution Discharge Elimination System Construction General Permit (SPDES) Notice of Intent for coverage under the SPDES General Permit and Wetlands Order of Conditions (if applicable).  Provide an as-designed site plan showing the delineation of the 100-foot zone.

Regulations

Follow requirements of Army Corp of Engineers, NYSDEC, and SEQR - State Environmental Quality Review Act, and any other applicable state or federal code.

1.1.4            Credit:  No Development on Parkland

A school district faces many issues during site selection.  Cost, student demographics, and environmental concerns all influence site acquisition.  The site is a crucial element in determining the overall sustainability of the school design.  Sites are sometimes purchased years in advance, and some of these credits may be out of the control of the school districts and designers at the time the school is being built.  However, school districts that are considering multiple sites can substantially lower the environmental impact of the school by choosing centrally located sites, sharing parks or facilities with community organizations, preserving open space, and protecting environmentally sensitive areas.

If at all possible, do not build on land, which prior to acquisition for the project was public parkland, conservation land, land acquired for water supply protection or land restored to agricultural or forestry use.  Maintain open spaces.

Documentation

Existing site survey.

1.1.5            Credit:  No Buildings on Flood Plains

Both federal and state agencies have worked together over the last several decades to prevent construction of buildings in floodplains to achieve two important results: 1) a significant decrease in building damage and liability; and 2) a restoration of functional floodplains to absorb flood waters and minimize impacts to downstream communities.

The “above the floodplain” requirement applies to the building footprint only, not the site as a whole.

To locate the floodplain elevations, FEMA Flood Insurance Studies (containing Flood and Coastal Profiles) and flood maps are available on the web at: http://www.msc.fema.gov/

Documentation

FIRM Map, highlight plain area OR provide map from FEMA website with flood plain highlighted. Show that the building footprint will not be in the flood plain.

1.1.6            Credit:  Reduced Building Footprint

Building multi-story schools reduces the amount of land used in construction.  Said another way, achieving a FAR of 1.67 requires at least 67% of a school's square footage to be above the first floor.

Documentation

Calculation of the Floor Area Ratio (FAR) by dividing the school facility’s total square footage, including all stories, by the facility’s footprint.  

1.1.7            Credit:  Sustainable Site & Building Layout

Performing a thorough site analysis at the pre-design phase is critical to understanding all the opportunities and complexities of a building site.  A good site analysis allows the designer to make informed design decisions to take full advantage of solar orientation, prevailing wind direction, topography, and tree species and locations.  Adjacent streets and traffic patterns should be considered, functional synergies with surrounding buildings created, and special environmental elements featured.

Item #1 highlights the importance of building orientation.  Energy efficiency and environmental impacts are affected by decisions made early in the planning process.  For example, when the building is oriented along the east-west axis, the designer can take advantage of natural daylighting, which reduces the need for electrical lighting and resultant energy consumption. Note:  Urban infill projects do not usually have the opportunity to orient the building to the sun, due to tight site constraints.  However, project designers are encouraged to think about maximum solar exposure within the limits of the surrounding buildings.

Item #2 encourages designers to consider prevailing winds in their design.  Proper orientation can help keep vehicle exhaust away from the school.  In addition, winter winds and snow accumulation should be considered to predict and prevent snowdrifts in driveways and in front of air intakes.

For Items #3 and #4 above, during preliminary design, the layout can be oriented to compliment existing topography.  Likewise, manmade structures, such as storage structures for biomass fuel, can be carefully sited to provide protection to the site.  Plantings of deciduous trees provide shade to the school during warmer months and access to sunlight at the end of autumn when the trees’ leaves have fallen.

Importation or exportation of soil can be costly in terms of both dollars and environmental impact.  Item #5 encourages the conservation of the environment by minimizing excavation and importation of non-native soils.  By optimizing cut and fill (ideally 1:1) during clearing and excavation, use of native soils is maximized, reducing the adverse impacts on the site.

In item #6, creating physical connections means considering features on adjacent properties and designing the site layout such that it promotes their use.

For item #7, Figure 1 below demonstrates a traditional dismissal practice experienced at many schools, and Figure 2 shows an approach that avoids traditional head to tail lining up of buses.  In the approach in Figure 2, bus exhaust is not near the intake for other buses or the school ventilation system.  When considering site placement of bus parking, also consider prevailing winter winds so that exhaust is not blown into the school air intakes.

Figure  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 1—Traditional Bus Queuing Strategy

Source: Asthma Regional Council, website: http://www.asthmaregionalcouncil.org/about/BusToolkit.htm

Source: Asthma Regional Council, website: http://www.asthmaregionalcouncil.org/about/BusToolkit.htm

Item #8 encourages early consideration of opportunities for on-site renewable energy generation. Biomass heating, for example, can be an effective option for many school projects, but the building and site layout must take the need for wood chip storage into consideration.  Wind electricity generation may also make sense for many schools, but wind resources should be investigated early and designers should investigate the best location for turbines on the school site.  Likewise, electricity generated by the sun through photovoltaic (PV) panels may be an option, but PV panels must be installed such that they will not be shaded and should be oriented toward the south.

Documentation

For all strategies attempted, develop Site Analysis sketches outlining all of the site’s features before the building is placed; AND develop the following for individual strategies for at least four (4) of the items listed in the credit and identified by the numbers below.  Site layouts and design narratives may be combined where appropriate.

1.      Site layout and design narrative signed by the project architect, showing how the project responds to natural daylighting.

2.      Site layout and design narrative signed by the project architect, showing how the project responds to prevailing winds.

3.      Site layout and landscape design narrative signed by the project architect, showing how the existing topography and tree coverage respond to weather or deflect unwanted noise.

4.      Site layout and landscape design narrative signed by the project architect, showing how the intended or existing plantings increase shade in the summer and allow solar gain in the winter.

5.      Develop a Cut and Fill Analysis report that shows a maximum of a 5% deviation from a 1:1 ratio.

6.      Site layout and design narrative signed by the project architect, showing how the project responds to natural features and/or adjacent buildings.

7.      Site plan showing bus loading and unloading area.  Also show on this drawing, or develop a separate drawing, that shows that the building’s air intake vents are not located near the loading/unloading zone.

8.      Site layout and design narrative signed by the project architect, showing how the project responds to opportunities for on-site renewable energy generation.

Resources

1.2     Stormwater Management

Purpose: Manage stormwater during and after construction to control erosion and runoff, reducing the negative impacts on water and air quality.

1.2.1      Prerequisite:  Construction Erosion & Sedimentation Control

Obtain NYSDEC State Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (SPDES) and any other applicable state or federal stormwater permit.

Construction projects with a land disturbance of one-acre or more must submit a Notice of Intent and develop a Stormwater Pollution Prevention Plan (SWPPP) to comply with the State Pollution Discharge Elimination System (SPDES) Construction General Permit.  Measures to prevent erosion and sedimentation are also required.  Stormwater discharges to Outstanding Resource Waters (including public drinking water reservoirs and vernal pools) may require additional review by NYSDEC to protect water quality.  Individual municipalities may further delimit the development standards.

A variety of best practices address this prerequisite, including:

Runoff Control

q               Minimize clearing: phase land grading and clearing if possible, preserve natural vegetation, install temporary and final stabilization as the project progresses.

q               Stabilize drainage ways: check dams (velocity dissipation), filter berms, grass-lined channel, riprap.

Erosion Control

q               Stabilize exposed soils: chemical stabilization (soil binders), mulching, permanent seeding, sodding, soil roughening, geo-textiles, erosion control matting, dust control.

q               Protect steep slopes: geotextiles, gradient terraces, soil retention, and temporary slope drain.

q               Protect waterways: temporary stream crossings (with clean fill or rock only) vegetated buffer, stream-bank and associated riparian area stabilization.

q               Phase construction: construction sequencing, limit areas of exposed soils.

Sediment Control

q               Install perimeter controls: temporary diversion dikes, wind fences, brush barrier, silt fences, stabilized (crushed rock, etc.) construction entrances, fiber waddles.         

q               Install sediment-trapping devices: check dams (energy dissipation to allow particle settling) sediment basins, sediment filters, sediment chambers.

q               Storm drain inlet protection: drop filters

Documentation

1.    A copy of the project’s Stormwater Pollution Prevention Plan (SWPPP)

2.    Specifications — Site prep and erosion control plans and drawings, if not contained in the SWPPP document.  Highlight or bubble notes on plans that refer to the SWPPP.

Resources

1.2.2            Credit:  Post-Construction Stormwater Management

Stormwater runoff is precipitation that flows over surfaces on the site and enters either the stormwater system or receiving waters.  Stormwater carries sediment and pollutants from the site into the storm system and any local bodies of water.  In addition, the cumulative runoff throughout the local area requires significant investments in municipal infrastructure to handle peak runoff loads.

Reducing the amount of runoff is the most effective way to minimize its negative impacts.  Many strategies exist to limit stormwater runoff, including the following:

·        Significantly reduce impervious surfaces by using semi-permeable surfacing materials, maximize on-site stormwater infiltration, and retain pervious and vegetated areas.

·        Capture rainwater from impervious areas of the building for groundwater recharge or reuse within the building.

Documentation

Develop a Stormwater Management Plan showing a net decrease in peak rate of discharge of at least 25% from existing to developed conditions as demonstrated by the 2 year-24 hour storm, and show that the volume runoff from the 100-year, 24-hour storm is 25% less than the same storm event for existing conditions.

Resources

LEED-NC Reference Guide, Version 2.2: Site Credit 6.1: Stormwater Design, Quantity Control.

EPA Stormwater Information:
http://www.epa.gov/ebtpages/watestormwater.html

1.3     Outdoor Surfaces

Purpose:  Reduce heat islands to minimize impact on microclimate, and human and wildlife habitat.

1.3.1            Credit:  Design to Reduce Heat Islands

Roof Areas

Cool roofs can significantly reduce school cooling loads and urban heat island effects by reflecting the sun’s energy, instead of absorbing, retaining, and radiating it into the occupied spaces below.  Both the reflectivity and emissivity are important characteristics of cool roofs.  A solar reflectance of 0.0 means that all the solar energy hitting the surface is absorbed and none is reflected.  Emissivity is the ability of a material to shed infrared radiation.

Schools that do not have significant cooling loads may not wish to pursue this credit.  In these cases, a cool roof can actually result in more energy use in the heating season than it will offset in cooling loads during the summer.  Energy modeling can help predict which facilities would be likely to experience an energy benefit from a cool roof.

Documentation

1.      Roof plan highlighting roofing areas with appropriate SRI ratings.

2.      Specifications — Roofing Material, showing compliance with SRI’s of 29 or 78, according to the slope of the roof.

3.      Calculation:

·        Sum the total roof square footage.

·        Sum the total cool roof square footage. Divide by total — result must be 75% for cool roofs.

Resources

·  LEED-NC Reference Guide Version 2.2: Site Credit 7.2: Heat Island Effect, Roof.

·  Cool Roof Rating Council — http://www.coolroofs.org/

Non-Roof Areas

Note that the “heat island effect” is largely an urban phenomenon.  Dark surfaces, such as pavement, cladding, and roofing absorb heat and radiate it back to surrounding areas.  In a city, where there are many dark, heat absorbing surfaces, infrared radiation can easily boost temperatures by 10˚F or more.  The heat island effect increases the need for air conditioning (and therefore electricity consumption) and is detrimental to site plantings, local wildlife, and maintaining comfortable temperatures.

Employ design strategies, materials, and landscaping designs that reduce heat absorption of exterior materials.  Note: Solar Reflectance Index (SRI) requirements in the drawings and specifications.  Provide shade using native or climate-tolerant trees and large shrubs, vegetated trellises, or other exterior structures supporting vegetation.  Substitute vegetated surfaces for hard surfaces.  Explore elimination of blacktop and the use of new coatings and integral colorants for asphalt to achieve light colored surfaces.

Documentation

1.      Site plan or landscaping plan showing trees that contribute to shade and highlight light-colored, non-roof impervious surfaces.

2.      Calculations

Shading

q               Identify all non-roof impervious surfaces on the project site and sum the total area.

q               Identify all trees that contribute shade to non-roof impervious surfaces.  Highlight these trees on the plan the school district develops.

q               Calculate the shade coverage provided by these trees after five years of growth on the non-roof impervious surfaces on June 21^st at solar noon to determine the maximum shading effect.

q               Determine the total area of shade provided for non-roof impervious surfaces.  Divide by total — the result must be 30%.

For use of light-colored/ high-albedo materials:

q               Identify all non-roof impervious surfaces on the project site and sum the total area.

q               Calculate the total area of non-roof impervious surfaces designed with light-colored/high-albedo materials. Divide by total — the result must be 30%.

q               If light-colored / high-albedo materials are used to achieve this credit, develop specifications showing an SRI of 29 or better.

Note:  Applicants may achieve 30% coverage by adding together the areas of shading and the areas of light-colored / high-albedo materials to total 30%.

1.4     Outdoor Lighting

Purpose:  Minimize light pollution and energy waste by controlling light output, uplight, glare, and light trespass, while providing for the safe and comfortable nighttime use of the school. Improve nighttime visibility and safety through glare reduction and high quality lighting.

1.4.1            Credit:  Exterior Light Pollution

Good outdoor lighting supports the comfort and safety of the school community.  Low glare, appropriate light levels, optical guidance, and good color rendition are attributes of good outdoor lighting.  Good lighting also prevents light pollution that impacts the night sky or trespasses onto neighboring properties.

There are some simple ways to avoid light pollution from school signs and flagpoles.  Signs should be lighted from the top down if feasible and use spot lighting fixtures, not flood light fixtures.  Self-lit signs, such as fluorescent signs, are not encouraged, but they are not prohibited. If flags are not lowered each night, then protocol dictates that they must be lighted.  This may be accomplished with a maximum of two fixtures of 50 watts.  Fixtures with narrow beam distribution should be used in order to concentrate light onto the flag.

Documentation

1.      A photometric site plan produced by computer modeling with the following information:

·        Horizontal illuminances at ground level on a minimum ten-foot by ten-foot grid with the property line clearly and boldly marked on photometric plan and abutting residential properties, parks, or natural wildlife areas noted.

·        Average, maximum, and minimum illuminances for each area (walkways, parking lots, driveways, building entries, etc.).

·        The location and mounting height of all site and building mounted exterior fixtures clearly indicated, with fixture type designations relating to the lighting fixture schedule.

·        Light loss factors used for each fixture type.

2.      Specifications for exterior lights, showing that Cutoff and Full Cutoff requirements are met.  Also supply an exterior lighting fixture schedule with manufacturers and model numbers, and manufacturer’s spec sheets, with a clear description of the specified lamping, wattage, IESNA cutoff classification (where applicable), and shielding accessories for each fixture.

3.      Develop a letter signed by the project’s site lighting designer verifying that items 1 through 8 will be executed on this project.  All eight (8) points must be addressed.

Resources

Illuminating Engineering Society of North America: http://www.iesna.org/

Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, Lighting for Exterior Environments, An IESNA Recommended Practice, RP-33-99

Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, Lighting Parking Facilities, RP-20-98

Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, Recommended Practice for Sports and Recreational Area Lighting, IESNA RP-6-01

Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, Roadway Lighting, IESNA RP-8-00

The International Dark Sky Association: http://www.darksky.org/

LEED-NC Reference Guide, Version. 2.2: Site Credit 8: Light Pollution Reduction: http://www.usgbc.org/

National Lighting Product Information Program, Lighting Answers, vol. 7 issue 2, Light Pollution:  http://www.lrc.rpi.edu/programs/NLPIP/

1.5     Transportation

Purpose:  Reduce pollution and land development impacts from automobile use.

1.5.1            Credit:  Locate Near Public Transit

The energy-use and pollution associated with transportation often dwarfs the total lifetime energy used by the school itself.  Locating the site close to public transportation, encouraging use of public transportation and carpooling by minimizing parking, and creating bike facilities and safe walking / biking access all reduce the automobile-related pollution.

Documentation

Area map locating transportation lines with distance to school noted.  Show station locations for commuter rail, light rail, or subway lines.

1.5.2            Credit:  Pedestrian/Bike Access

When available, public transportation is a very efficient method of transportation.  Some school districts offer reduced or subsidized fares for students and staff using public transportation.  If sufficient capacity exists, schools can use public transportation to replace school district-provided bus service.  Schools located near high traffic areas must ensure safe student access.

The purpose of this credit is to provide safe access to the school by students and staff who choose to walk or ride their bicycles to school.  To protect pedestrians, sidewalks or walkways must extend to the end of the school entrance at the public way. 

Documentation

1.      Site plan highlighting bike racks and details regarding how many bikes each rack can accommodate.

2.      Site plan highlighting all sidewalks extending to the end of the school entrance at the public way.

3.      Complete calculation for necessary number of bike racks.

1.5.3            Credit:  Minimize Parking

Excess parking spaces encourage increased automobile use, contribute to urban heat island effects, and can increase pollution from stormwater runoff.  Design parking lots so that parking spaces do not exceed listed amounts and include clearly marked, preferred parking areas for carpools, vanpools and low-emitting, fuel-efficient vehicles.  For the purposes of making calculations for this credit, classrooms include:

·        General classrooms;

·        Art rooms;

·        Music classrooms;

·        Computer labs;

·        Science labs; and

·        Special needs collaborative, and remedial classroom space.

Documentation

New Construction

1.      Site plan showing parking layout (indicate total number of parking spaces).  Highlight preferred parking spaces.

2.      Signage schedule highlighting Preferred Parking signage.

3.      Indicate number of classrooms (as defined for this credit) and total number of students.

Major Renovation

1.      Existing site plan showing existing parking conditions (indicate total number of parking spaces).

2.      Site plan of new parking layout (indicate total number of parking spaces).  Highlight preferred parking spaces.

3.      Signage schedule highlighting Preferred Parking signage.

Resources

CHPS. “Guideline SP3: Safe and Energy Efficient Transportation,” in Best Practices Manual. Vol. 2, Design. San Francisco: CHPS, 2005.

LEED-NC Reference Guide Version 2.2: Site Credit 4.4: Alternative Transportation – Parking Capacity.

2       Water (3 points, 2%)

2.1     Outdoor Systems

Significant amounts of potable water are currently used to irrigate landscaping and playing fields. Expanding development increases the demand for potable water.  As more and more water is withdrawn, aquifers and rivers can be stressed to the point of creating water shortages and ecological changes to rivers and streams.  Summer dry spells can cause the most stress to underground and surface waters as water is withdrawn for irrigation and other outdoor activities but is not replaced by rainfall.

The use of potable water for irrigation can be minimized by specifying native species and water conservative plants and grasses, collecting and using rainwater for irrigation and using highly water-efficient irrigation systems where irrigation is absolutely necessary (e.g., playing fields).  When specifying draught tolerant plants, determine soil composition and ensure that existing soils will support the plants to be specified.  Consider all operating and maintenance costs of any irrigation equipment specified.  If irrigation is necessary, make arrangements to irrigate during early morning hours to maximize irrigation efficiency and minimize evaporation.

2.1.1            Credit:  No Irrigation For Landscaping

Documentation

A letter signed by a landscape architect certifying that permanent irrigation systems have not been specified for non-playing field areas; AND that only water conservative plants and grasses have been specified for these areas.  The letter must clearly state that no irrigation, manual or otherwise, will be needed in these areas after plants are established.  The letter must also indicate the species of draught tolerant plants and grasses that have been specified.

Resources

LEED-NC Reference Guide Version. 2.2: Water Credit 1.1: Water Efficient Landscaping.

Local water utility staff, water efficient landscape consultants, Certified Irrigation Designers

(http://www.irrigation.org/), and Master Gardeners are also good resources for helping achieve this credit.

2.1.2            Credit:  Reduce Potable Water For Landscaping

Calculating a Water Budget

Calculate a water budget for the playing fields.  Playing field needs vary according to many factors including: amount of solar radiation, temperature, humidity, grass species and rate of growth, rooting depth, and soil texture.  Lawns and playing fields require approximately one inch of water a week from all sources, both natural and human.  This amount may vary slightly depending on the soil type.

The best types of soil for playing fields are 3% to 7% organic content and fall into the following U.S. Department of Agriculture soil categories:

Table  SEQ Table \* ARABIC 1—Watering Requirements by Soil Type

Calculate the total water needed per week with the following data:

q               X = Number of square feet of turf being irrigated.

q               SF = Soil Factor.  For soils with organic content between 3%-7%, the Soil Factor is 1.  For soil with less than 3% organic content and coarser than loamy sand, use a Soil Factor of 1.25.

Gallons required per week = (Plant Watering Requirement of 1 inch/week) * (1 ft/ 12 inches) * (X ft² of turf) *(SF) * (7.48 gallons/ft³).

If the growing season in this example’s area is roughly 28 weeks, calculate the total watering need per growing season by multiplying by 28 weeks to determine the water budget. 

Water Budget = Gallons required per week * 28 weeks.

Artificial Turf

If the project is installing artificial sports turf, then the water that would have been required to irrigate the original grass turf area may be subtracted from the water budget.  If the synthetic field is being watered for cooling, then subtract the difference between that amount and what a natural field would require.  Some brands of artificial turf can be semi-impermeable.  If the turf sheds too much rainwater, it may be considered impermeable and thus the project may have to include a groundwater recharge system on the site.

Rainwater Contribution to Irrigation

To find rainfall data on the NOAA, World Meteorological website, see the following link: http://www.worldweather.org/093/c00273.htm

Average monthly effective rainfall can be estimated from Table 2-43 in part 623 of the National Engineering Handbook, produced by the Natural Resources Conservation Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture From Brian Vinchesi.

Rainwater Collection and Water Storage

In order to reduce potable water demand for sewage conveyance and irrigation, some schools opt to use rainwater catchment systems with cisterns or underground storage tanks.  These supplementary systems can significantly decrease water demand by drawing on stored water instead of municipal water supplies or drinking water wells.

A rainwater catchment system should be designed with a water storage capacity for sewage conveyance and/or irrigation in typical years under average conditions.  In other words, oversizing water storage to meet drought conditions may be costly and could increase maintenance requirements.  On the other hand, undersizing storage may simply result in a system that is too small to significantly offset potable water consumption.  Rainwater collection and storage systems should be designed to avoid mold growth, bacterial accumulation and stagnation.

The underground storage tanks and cisterns could at times run dry during drought conditions.  Therefore, it is acceptable for tanks and cisterns to connect to wells or municipal water supplies.  Note that sizing calculations must support use of rainwater collection for 50% of playing field irrigation needs during an average year.

Documentation

1.      Calculations of turf watering needs showing how much irrigation water must be added to the playing fields in gallons/week.

2.      Comprehensive narrative signed by the project’s landscape architect, civil engineer, or irrigation designer describing how 50% reduction of potable water will be achieved including irrigation technologies and/or native plantings.

3.      Irrigation plans and details.

4.      Specifications for irrigation and/or native plantings.

Resources

LEED-NC Reference Guide Version 2.2: Water Credit 1.2: Water Efficient Landscaping.

Local water utility staff, water efficient landscape consultants, Certified Irrigation Designers

(http://www.irrigation.org/), and Master Gardeners are also good resources for helping achieve this credit.

2.2     Indoor Water Systems

Purpose: Maximize water efficiency within buildings to reduce the burden on municipal water supply, aquifers, and wastewater treatment systems.

The growing value of potable water underscores the importance of lowering demand.  Efficient water consumption naturally reduces the amount of water pumped from the ground or transported from reservoirs to cities and towns.  In addition, efficiency and water conservation reduce the cost and amount of sewage needing treatment after use.  Since water-efficient devices can vary in quality and performance, specify only durable, high performance fixtures.

2.2.1            Credit:  Indoor Water Use Reduction

This credit awards reductions in total water use; therefore all water uses are included in the calculations.  To quantify water use reductions, create spreadsheets showing baseline and design water uses.  Each water-using appliance or fixture must be listed with the amount of daily uses, number of occupants, and total water use.  Note:  To determine the net amount of water used in the calculations, the amount of reclaimed water used for sewage conveyance is subtracted from the total amount of water used.  A water-efficient design for the school is shown below in Tables 2 and 3.

Develop a water use baseline including all water-consuming fixtures, equipment, and seasonal conditions according to methodology outlined below.  Specify water-conserving plumbing fixtures that exceed the Energy Policy Act (EPAct) of 1992’s fixture requirements in combination with ultra high efficiency or dry fixture and control technologies.  Specify high water efficiency equipment (e.g., dishwashers, faucets, cooling towers).

Table  SEQ Table \* ARABIC 2—Design Indoor Water Consumption Calculation

For the baseline calculation, create a similar spreadsheet but change only the type of fixture and its associated design details.  The baseline calculation for this example would therefore be:

Table  SEQ Table \* ARABIC 3—Baseline Indoor Water Consumption Calculation

Comparing the two spreadsheets, the water-efficient fixtures reduced potable water use by:

% Savings = 1 – (Design Total Annual Volume / Baseline Total Annual Volume)

= 1 – (482,220/1,269,000) = 0.62 = 62%

This design would earn a point because overall potable water use has been reduced by over 20%.

Documentation

1.      Perform calculations as outlined above.

2.      Develop a specification section on plumbing fixtures and include fixture schedule.

Post-Construction Documentation

Approved submittals for all plumbing fixtures.

Resources

LEED-NC Reference Guide Version 2.2: Water Credit 3: Water Use Reduction.

3     Energy (26 points, 20%)

3.1     Energy Efficiency

Purpose:  Reduce environmental impacts and operational costs associated with excessive energy use.

Energy-efficient schools save money while conserving non-renewable energy resources and reducing atmospheric emissions of pollutants and greenhouse gases.  The New York State Energy Conservation and Construction Code (ECCC) supports the construction of energy-efficient schools whether facilities projects are renovations, additions, or new construction.  The requirements of the ECCC, while effective, can be easily met and exceeded using numerous cost-effective, practical, and straightforward measures.

Energy modeling is an effective tool for achieving energy savings and is a critical part of an integrated design approach.  Various combinations of building systems can be modeled using specialized software to show payback calculations for different energy saving measures.  The most effective energy modeling is an iterative process.  This means that different combinations of measures, such as daylighting, HVAC systems controls, lighting systems and controls, and energy recovery equipment, are modeled to determine the best payback and to minimize operational costs.

Commissioning, maintenance, and training are vitally important to the performance of the school and its systems, and are critical to maintaining energy efficiency.  Commissioning involves a rigorous quality assurance process that ensures the building and its systems are designed, built and operated as designed and that the school district receives the proper training and documentation needed to operate and maintain the building.  No building can perform optimally without adequate maintenance.  Training is critically important for maintenance staff to thoroughly understand how to maintain and operate the building systems.  When staff turnover occurs, appropriate documentation must be on hand in order to train new team members.

3.1.1      Prerequisite:  Minimum Energy Performance

Model the school using the energy savings calculations protocol in Chapter 8 of the ECCC to show that the building will achieve 20% less energy cost than an ECCC building, for regulated loads only. 

Regulated Loads: all loads other than “process” loads.

Process loads are defined here and in LEED^®-NC Version 2.2 as office and general miscellaneous equipment, computers, elevators, kitchen cooking and refrigeration, and laundry washing/drying. The process loads default is 25% of the total energy cost for the baseline building energy cost unless supporting documentation is developed to substantiate that process energy loads are less than 25%.  Normally, process loads must be identical for both the baseline building and for the proposed building. 

However, project teams should also consider measures that reduce process loads.  Some improvements in process loads will have a positive impact on HVAC cooling loads, which are part of regulated loads.  These types of reductions in process loads may benefit your savings calculations.

The following are acceptable energy modeling software programs:

• BLAST (although very powerful, Blast is no longer under development and no new versions have been released since 1998)
• DOE-2.1E
• DOE-2.2 (or PowerDOE)
• EnergyPlus (the result of the merger between DOE-2 and Blast)
• eQUEST (nice user interface that uses the DOE-2.2 engine)
• HAP (by Carrier), also called E20II
• TRACE (by Trane)
• TRNSYS; or
• an equivalent hourly computer simulation program.

Contribution from on-site renewable (solar and wind only) generation can be counted towards energy savings. 

When modeling your building, you will usually be able to achieve compliance with this Energy Prerequisite if you choose to incorporate the package of energy measures listed below.  These measures have been studied and modeled by the Massachusetts Technology Collaborate (MTC) and are expected to achieve at least 20% greater building energy efficiency than a comparable baseline building that meets the requirements of the ECCC.

If you plan, however, to apply for 3.1.3 Credit:    Superior Energy Performance, you will normally need to go beyond the design criteria in the package below.

1.      Lighting Power Density (LPD):  Average installed lighting equipment power density must not exceed 1.0 Watts/ft² for the entire school.

 

2.      Automatic Light Reduction:  Control systems, such as occupancy sensors, timed lighting schedules, or timed switches, that shut interior lights off when spaces are unoccupied for 15 minutes or more must be employed in all spaces.

Exceptions:

·        Emergency lighting;

·        Security lighting;

·        Task lighting;

·        Spaces with only one luminaire; and

·        Corridors.

q      

3.      Dimming/Switching/Bi-Level Control for Lighting:  Light switches must be installed such that more than one level of artificial illumination is possible.

Each perimeter and non-perimeter regularly occupied space enclosed by ceiling-height partitions must have a manual control to allow the occupant to uniformly reduce the connected lighting load by at least 50% in all spaces.

Exceptions:

·        Emergency lighting;

·        Security lighting;

·        Task lighting;

·        Spaces with only one luminaire;

·        Corridors; and

·        Rest rooms.

4.      Daylight Responsive Lighting Control:  Incorporate daylighting throughout the school building such that 15% of the installed electrical lighting wattage is dimmed or turned off when sufficient natural light is present.

Exceptions:  Theatrical lighting, specialty lighting, and task lighting.

 

5.      Fenestration Performance:  The U-Factor of the window assemblies must not exceed 0.45 for metal-framed window systems and 0.35 for non-metal-framed window systems.  For further information, see Advanced Buildings Benchmark Version 1.1, pp.62–63.

 

6.      Premium Efficiency Motors:  For all motors greater than or equal to ½ horsepower, install premium efficiency motors as defined by the National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA).  Link: http://www.nema.org/stds/complimentary-docs/upload/MG1premium.pdf

 

7.      Mechanical System Design:  Employ best practices design techniques to improve system performance and meet ASHRAE Standard 55-2004.  The design engineer must document the following actions in the design process.

When sizing the heating and cooling equipment, perform load calculations using interior load assumptions that are consistent with sustainable design practices.  To avoid oversizing heating and cooling equipment, use the actual design interior lighting power density, account for the actual glazing characteristics, provide credit for displaced loads or if under-floor systems are used, and base miscellaneous loads on field-verified measurements or field-based research rather than typical assumptions.  Where not feasible, document the non-standard load assumptions for owner concurrence.

When sizing the fan and air distribution systems, document fan-sizing calculations with zone-by-zone load calculations.  Perform calculations to determine critical path supply duct pressure loss.  Compare fitting selections for oval duct where feasible to lower leakage and reduce pressure loss.  Separate all fittings in medium and high–pressure ductwork by several duct diameters to reduce system effects wherever feasible.  Where possible, provide automatic dampers on exhaust in lieu of barometric dampers to reduce fan power and increase barometric relief.

Perform a second set of calculations using part-load conditions (maximum likely load and/or standard operating conditions).  This includes using benchmark data, average daytime temperatures and non-peak solar gain, and other assumptions to define part-load conditions for the heating and cooling system.  Include diversity factors for interior loads and other factors that will allow proper assessment of part-load operation.

Describe the system operation at these conditions and describe features of the design that will facilitate efficient operation at these part-load conditions.  Document how the system will deliver ventilation air, maintain comfort in accordance with ASHRAE Standard 55-2004 and operate in an energy efficient manner.

Source:  Advanced Buildings Benchmark Version 1.1, New Buildings Institute

 

8.      Boilers/Burners Selection and Sizing:  When the school design includes a boiler plant, the size of any single boiler must not exceed 50% of the calculated design building heating load.  For power burners larger than 400,000 Btu/hr, fully modulating burners must be used.

Boilers are typically sized to meet the building heat loss and ventilation air heating loads at winter design temperature conditions without taking credit for internal heat sources such as lights, equipment, and people.  This results in the boilers that are oversized for most of their operating conditions.  Oversized boilers are inefficient due to fixed losses, such as radiative heat losses.  Radiative heat losses, which can be as little as 1% at full load, can become 5% to 20% at partial load.

On top of fixed losses, inefficiencies also result when boilers “short cycle”; which occurs when an oversized boiler quickly satisfies the heating load, cycles off for a brief period, and then cycles on again.  Larger boilers with power burners that have pre- and post- purge cycles are particularly inefficient when they undergo short cycling, since with each cycle, air used to flush the boiler during purging is heated and vented to the chimney.  Short cycling also adversely affects the boiler life because the boiler is rapidly heated then cooled, and burner motors are cycled on and off, reducing the longevity of the boiler heat exchanging surfaces and burner motors.


 

To avoid these problems, size the boiler plant and provide controls to efficiently meet both the peak and part load heating requirements of the building.  Provide multiple boilers, each sized at some fraction less than 50% of the design building heating load, and use modulating burners on larger boilers so that they can operate over a wide load range without short cycling.

Exception:  Boiler plants that utilize condensing boilers or plants where each boiler capacity is smaller than 300,000 Btu/hr.

 

9.      Boiler Efficiency:  If installing gas-fired boilers, they must have a rated thermal efficiency of at least 80% or a rated combustion efficiency of at least 83%.  If installing oil-fired boilers, the boilers must have a rated thermal efficiency of at least 83% or a combustion efficiency of 85%.

 

10.   Efficient Cooling Equipment:  Install air conditioning equipment in accordance with Advanced Buildings — Benchmark Version 1.1 prescriptive criteria “Mechanical Equipment Efficiencies Requirements” addressing package terminal air conditioners, heat pumps, electric chillers, and absorption chillers.  Refer to Appendix B.  Tables listing heat pump efficiencies and unitary air conditioning and condensing unit efficiencies are provided by the Consortium for Energy Efficiency (CEE), which developed specifications for use in voluntary energy-efficiency programs.  Tables for package terminal air conditioners and chillers were developed by the New Buildings Institute for their Advanced Buildings—Benchmark efficiency criteria.  Be sure to check the web links for updated versions of the efficiency tables.

Source: Advanced Buildings -Benchmark, New Buildings Institute Version 1.1: http://www.poweryourdesign.com/ABbenchmark.pdf

Consortium for Energy Efficiency:  http://www.cee1.org/com/hecac/hecac-tiers.pdf

 

11.   CO₂ -Based Demand Controlled Ventilation:  Install CO₂-based demand controlled ventilation systems in large volume areas with variable occupancy, such as gymnasiums, cafeterias, and auditoriums.

Demand controlled ventilation is a ventilation strategy for spaces with varying levels of occupancy throughout the day.  For example, the school cafeteria may be occupied sparsely most of the school day except for lunch periods when occupancy reaches maximum levels.  Carbon dioxide sensors installed in the occupied spaces measure the CO₂ in the air, compare the CO₂ levels to levels measured by outdoor CO₂ sensors, and continuously adjust the amount of fresh air delivered based on the number of people in the room.  When more people are in the room, the ventilation rate of airflow increases, when there are fewer, the ventilation rate decreases proportionally.  This ventilation control method avoids heating and cooling large quantities of outside air when few people are using the space.  Gymnasiums and auditoriums are also examples of spaces that can have high design ventilation air volumes but, for most of the time, are not fully occupied.  Demand controlled ventilation is appropriate for these spaces as well.

When siting the outdoor CO₂ sensor, it is critical to locate the sensors away from other sources of CO₂, such as exhaust vents, which would provide a false reading of ambient carbon dioxide levels.  If a CO₂-based demand controlled ventilation system is implemented, it is critical that the CO₂ sensors are recalibrated at intervals according to the manufacturer’s recommendations.  This recalibration of the sensors must be written into the school’s maintenance manual.

Use the language below to guide design assumptions.

Systems with design outside air capacities greater than 3,000 cfm serving areas having an average design occupancy density exceeding 50 people per 1,000 ft² must automatically reset outside air rates based on the CO₂ concentration levels in the space as compared to the outdoor CO₂ level.

Exceptions:  Systems with heat recovery that have a minimum effectiveness of the heat recovery system of 50% for total energy recovery or 65% of sensible heat recovery.

 

12.   Variable Speed Control:  Individual pumps serving variable flow systems and VAV fans having a motor horsepower of 7.5 hp or larger must have controls or other devices (such as variable speed control) that will result in pump or fan motor demand of no more than 30% of design wattage at 50% of design flow.

13.   Building Envelope:  Follow the “Minimum Insulation Requirement R-Values and Maximum Insulation U-Factors” found in Appendix C.

Documentation

The energy modeling report developed must include the following key elements:

q                

·        The facility and site description must include a narrative describing the type of construction, hours of operation, size and configuration of building.  Also describe the mechanical system, lighting system and equipment loads, domestic hot water system, and any renewable energy systems.

 

·        Narrative summarizing the analysis methodology, the baseline design, and results of energy modeling.

 

·        Table summarizing and comparing the differences between ‘as designed’ case and the baseline case.

 

·        Table summarizing the annual energy consumption for the design case and the base case (see example table below).

q                

·        Table summarizing cost savings (see example tables below).  Try to use actual retail utility rate structures and schedules.

q                

Table 1—Annual Energy Consumption, Design Case versus Base Case

Table 2—Cost Savings Summary